Teaching+Specifics+Types+of+Knowledge

=//Chapter 11 Teaching Specific Types of Knowledge //=

Strategy Overview:
==In the text, Marzano discusses how a teacher may match specific instructional strategies to specific types of knowledge and cites the research of Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba. Both researchers identify the need for teachers to identify instructional objectives for content, and then to build instruction based on the desired learning outcomes. The method of instruction organizes the content into learning experiences that build knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Marzano organizes subject-matter knowledge into two categories- informational, or declarative, and process-oriented, or procedural. The instructional strategies focus on content areas may be declarative, and provide opportunities for students to organize new learnings into generalizations that will help them to transfer knowledge and apply them to new situations. Process-oriented knowledge is more focused on the production of some form of product or new learning through metacognative control. The instructional strategies are the building blocks of planning to teach a unit of study including: setting learning goals, monitoring progress, practicing and applying knowledge, and determining how well students have met their goals. ==

[[image:hilda_taba.jpg]]
==//__Hilda Taba__// was a progressive educational researcher who is credited with the study of the formation of concepts in elementary social studies. Identifying specific instructional strategies for specific knowledge was based on her ideas of: ==  > **Taba's curriculum model is based on the "spiral" curriculum, inductive teaching strategies for the development of concepts, generalizations and applications, and the organization of content at three levels- key ideas, organizational ideas, and facts. **   **__Robert Gagne__ believed there were nine classifications of learning that required different types of learning and instruction. Different internal and external stimuli were needed for each type of learning. The nine classifications are: ** (1) gaining attention (reception) (2) informing learners of the objective (expectancy) (3) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) (4) presenting the stimulus (selective perception) (5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) (6) eliciting performance (responding) (7) providing feedback (reinforcement) (8) assessing performance (retrieval) (9) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization). 
 * 1) stating educational objectives
 * 2) selecting learning experiences
 * 3) organizing learning experiences
 * 4) assessing the achievement of objectives

__Robert Marzano's Research __:
Subject matter knowledge can be organized into categories:

//Informational//- " Declarative Knowledge "
1. Vocabulary terms and phrases __Research and Theory__: -Students must encounter words in context more than once to learn them -Instruction in new words enhances learning those words in context -One of the best ways to learn a new word is to associate an image with it
 * __Example:__**

//**MAGNIFY**//

//word parts:// magn// (large, great) // <span style="color: #99cccc; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 75%; left: -5.9%; mso-color-index: 3; msocolorindex: 4; msospecialformat: bullet; position: absolute; top: 0.3em;">l -ify// (v. to do)//

-Direct vocabulary instruction works -Direct instruction on words that are critical to new content produces the most powerful learning __Classroom Practice__: - Identifying Critical Terms and Phrases -A Process for Teaching New Terms and Phrases 1. Present students with a brief explanation or description of the new term or phrase 2. Present students with a non-linguistic representation of the new term or phrase 3. Ask students to generate their own explanations or descriptions of the term or phrase 4. Ask students to create their own non-linguistic representation of the term or phrase


 * __Example:__**



5. Periodically ask students to review the accuracy of their explanations and representations

2. Details __Research and Theory__: -Students should have systemic, multiple exposures to details (time between exposures should not exceed 2 days) -Details are highly amenable to "dramatic" instruction 1. verbal instruction- telling students 2. Visual instruction- non-linguistic representations 3. observe enactment- strongest effect __Classroom Practice__: -Multiple Exposures to identified key details -Dramatic Representation of key details- acting out
 * __Example:__**

//Dramatic Tableaux -// A dramatic representation of important details or events. A sample student worksheet for a dramatic tableaux is attached:

3. Organizing ideas __Research and Theory__: -Initially, students commonly have misconceptions about organizing ideas 1. asking students to //recall// what they know produces very little conceptual change 2. having students //discuss// what they know facilitates the infusion of new perspectives and ideas generated by discussion 3. having students provide a sound defense or //argument// for their position provides the biggest conceptual change -Students should provided opportunities to apply organizing ideas __Classroom Practice__: -Making sure that students can clearly articulate statements of generalizations and principles and provide numerous examples -Helping students increase their understanding of generalizations and principles and clear up misconceptions about them

//Process Oriented//- " Procedural Knowledge "
4. Skills and tactics __Research and Theory__: -Mental skills come in two different forms: tactics and algorithms tactic-general rules governing overall flow of execution with no rigid or set order algorithm- set of steps that must be performed in a specific order -The discovery approach is difficult to use effectively with skills: the more variation there is in the steps that can be used to effectively execute a skill, the more amenable the skill is to discovery learning (tactic) -When teachers use discovery learning, they should organize examples into categories that represent the different approaches to the skill i.e. Cognitively Guided Instruction -Skills are most useful when learned to the level of automaticity- distributed vs massed __Classroom Practice__: -Facilitating the discovery approach to skills -Planning for distributed practice and emphasizing its importance

5. Processes __Research and Theory__: -Processes produce some form of product or new understanding, but have a much higher tolerance for variation relative to the steps involved than skills -Students should practice the parts of a process in the context of the overall process -Teachers should emphasize the metacognative control of the processes 1. provide plenty of guided practice by having students use strategies for as many appropriate tasks as possible, providing reinforcement and feedback on how students can improve their execution of the strategies 2. Encourage students to monitor their performance when using the strategies 3. Encourage generalizations of the strategies by having students use them with different types of materials in the various content areas, as well as their continued use __Classroom Practice__: -Providing a general model of the overall components and subcomponents of processes -Focusing on specific subcomponents within the context of the entire process 1.help students articulate clearly the specific subcomponent that they are going to practice and to set criteria for evaluating their own progress 2. Provide a variety of assignments over time that require students to use the targeted skill or strategy within the context of the process 3. Encourage students to self-assess but also provide feedback on the targeted skill or strategy

Works Cited:

Marzano, R.,(2007), //The Art and Science of Teaching//, Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development